| Ludwig von Mises (1881-1973)
By Murray N. Rothbard
Ludwig von Mises Institute
2006
"Economics deals with society's fundamental problems; it concerns
everyone and belongs to all. It is the main and proper study of every citizen."
One of the most notable economists and social philosophers of the
twentieth century, Ludwig von Mises, in the course of a long and
highly productive life, developed an integrated, deductive science
of economics based on the fundamental axiom that individual human
beings act purposively to achieve desired goals. Even though his
economic analysis itself was “value-free” -- in the sense of being
irrelevant to values held by economists, Mises concluded that the
only viable economic policy for the human race was a policy of
unrestricted laissez-faire, of free markets and the unhampered
exercise of the right of private property, with government strictly
limited to the defense of person and property within its territorial area.
For Mises was able to demonstrate (a) that the expansion of free
markets, the division of labor, and private capital investment is
the only possible path to the prosperity and flourishing of the
human race; (b) that socialism would be disastrous for a modern
economy because the absence of private ownership of land and capital
goods prevents any sort of rational pricing, or estimate of costs,
and (c) that government intervention, in addition to hampering and
crippling the market, would prove counter-productive and cumulative,
leading inevitably to socialism unless the entire tissue of
interventions was repealed.
Holding these views, and hewing to truth indomitably in the face of
a century increasingly devoted to statism and collectivism, Mises
became famous for his “intransigence” in insisting on a
non-inflationary gold standard and on laissez-faire.
The Mises Institute's coat of arms is that of the Mises
family, awarded in 1881 when Ludwig von Mises's
great-grandfather Mayer Rachmiel Mises was ennobled by the
Emperor Franz Josef I of Austria. In the upper right-hand
quadrant is the staff of Mercury, god of commerce and
communication (the Mises family was successful in both; they
were merchants and bankers). In the lower left-hand quadrant
is a representation of the Ten Commandments. Mayer Rachmiel,
as well as his father, presided over various Jewish cultural
organizations in Lemberg, the city where Ludwig was born. The
red banner displays the Rose of Sharon, which in the litany is
one of the names given to the Blessed Mother, as well as the
Stars of the Royal House of David, a symbol of the Jewish
people. Ludwig's lifelong motto was from Virgil: tu ne cede
malis, sed contra audentior ito. Here is a full view.
Effectively barred from any paid university post in Austria and
later in the United States, Mises pursued his course gallantly. As
the chief economic adviser to the Austrian government in the 1920s,
Mises was single-handedly able to slow down Austrian inflation; and
he developed his own “private seminar” which attracted the
outstanding young economists, social scientists, and philosophers
throughout Europe. As the founder of the "neo-Austrian School" of
economics, Mises’s business cycle theory, which blamed inflation and
depressions on inflationary bank credit encouraged by Central Banks,
was adopted by most younger economists in England in the early 1930s
as the best explanation of the Great Depression.
Having fled the Nazis to the United States, Mises did some of his
most important work here. In over two decades of teaching, he
inspired an emerging Austrian School in the United States. The year
after Mises died in 1973, his most distinguished follower, F.A.
Hayek, was awarded the Nobel Prize in economics for his work in
elaborating Mises’s business cycle theory during the later 1920s and 1930s.
Mises was born on Sept 29, 1881, in the city of Lemberg (now Lvov)
in Galicia, where his father, a Viennese construction engineer
working for the Austrian railroads, was then stationed. Both Mises’s
father and mother came from prominent Viennese families; his
mother’s uncle, Dr Joachim Landau, served as deputy from the Liberal
Party in the Austrian Parliament.
Entering the University of Vienna at the turn of the century as
leftist interventionist, the young Mises discovered Principlesof
Economics by Carl Menger, the founding work of the Austrian School
of economics, and was quickly converted to the Austrian emphasis on
individual action rather than unrealistic mechanistic equations as
the unit of economics analysis, and to the importance of a
free-market economy.
Mises became prominent post-doctoral student in the famous
University of Vienna seminar of the great Austrian economist Eugen
von Bohm-Bawerk (among whose many accomplishments was the
devastating refutation of the Marxian labor theory of value).
During this period, in his first great work, The Theory of Money and
Credit (1912) Mises performed what had been deemed an impossible
task: to integrate the theory of money into the general theory of
marginal utility and price (what would now be called integrating
“macroeconomics” into “microeconomics.”) Since Bohm-Bawerk and his
other Austrian colleagues did not accept Mises’s integration and
remained without a monetary theory, he was therefore obliged to
strike out on his own and found a “neo-Austrian” school.
In his monetary theory, Mises revived the long forgotten British
Currency School principle, prominent until the 1850s, that society
does not at all benefit from any increase in the money supply, that
increased money and bank credit only causes inflation and business
cycles, and that therefore government policy should maintain the
equivalent of a 100 percent gold standard.
Mises added to this insight the elements of his business cycle
theory: that credit expansion by the banks, in addition to causing
inflation, makes depressions inevitable by causing “malinvestment,”
i.e. by inducing businessmen to overinvest in “higher orders” of
capital goods (machine tools, construction, etc.) and to underinvest in consumer goods.
The problem is that inflationary bank credit, when loaned to
business, masquerades as pseudo-savings, and makes businessmen
believe that there are more savings available to invest in capital
goods production than consumers are genuinely willing to save.
Hence, an inflationary boom requires a recession which becomes a
painful but necessary process by which the market liquidates unsound
investments and reestablishes the investment and production
structure that best satisfies consumer preferences and demands.
Mises, and his follower Hayek, developed this cycle theory during
the 192Os, on the basis of which Mises was able to warn an unheeding
world that the widely trumpeted “New Era” of permanent prosperity of
the 192Os was a sham, and that its inevitable result would be bank
panic and depression. When Hayek was invited to teach at the London
School of Economics in 1931 by an influential former student at
Mises’s private seminar, Lionel Robbins, Hayek was able to convert
most of the younger English economists to this perspective. On a
collision course with John Maynard Keynes and his disciples at
Cambridge, Hayek demolished Keynes’s Treatise on Money, but lost the
battle and most of his followers to the tidal wave of the Keynesian
Revolution that swept the economic world after the publication of
Keynes’s General Theory in 1936.
The policy prescriptions for business cycles of Mises-Hayek and of
Keynes were diametrically opposed. During a boom period, Mises
counseled the immediate end of all bank credit and monetary
expansion; and, during a recession, he advised strict laissez-faire,
allowing the readjustment forces of the recession to work themselves
out as rapidly as possible.
Not only that: for Mises the worst form of intervention would be to
prop up prices or wage rates, causing unemployment, to increase the
money supply, or to boost government spending in order to stimulate
consumption. For Mises, the recession was a problem of under-saving,
and over-consumption, and it was therefore important to encourage
savings and thrift rather than the opposite, to cut government
spending rather than increase it. It is clear that, from 1936 on
Mises was totally in opposition to the worldwide fashion in
macroeconomic policy.
Socialism-communism had triumphed in Russia and in much of Europe
during and after World War I, and Mises was moved to publish his
famous article, “Economic Calculation in the Socialist
Commonwealth,” (1920) in which he demonstrated that it would be
impossible for a socialist planning board to plan a modern economic
system; furthermore, no attempt at artificial “markets” would work,
since a genuine pricing and costing system requires an exchange of
property titles, and therefore private property in the means of production.
Mises developed the article into his book Socialism(1922), a
comprehensive philosophical and sociological, as well as economic
critique which still stands as the most thorough and devastating
demolition of socialism ever written. Mises’s Socialism converted
many prominent economists and social philosophers out of socialism,
including Hayek, the German Wilhelm Ropke, and the Englishman Lionel Robbins.
In the United States, the publication of the English translation of
Socialism in 1936 attracted the admiration of the prominent economic
journalist Henry Hazlitt, who reviewed it in the New York Times, and
converted one of America’s most prominent and learned Communist
fellow-travelers of the period, J.B. Matthews, to a Misesian
position and to opposition to all forms of socialism.
Socialists throughout Europe and the United States worried about the
problem of economic calculation under socialism for about fifteen
years, finally pronouncing the problem solved with the promulgation
of the “market socialism” model of the Polish economist Oskar Lange
in 1936. Lange returned to Poland after World War II to help plan
Polish Communism. The collapse of socialist planning, in Poland and
the other Communist countries in 1989, left Establishment economists
across the ideological spectrum, all of whom bought the Lange
“solution”, mightily embarrassed.
Some prominent socialists, such as Robert Heilbroner, have had the
grace to admit publicly that “Mises was right” all along. (The
phrase “Mises was Right” was the title of a panel at the annuel 1990
meeting of the Southern Economic Association at New Orleans.)
If socialism was an economic catastrophe, government intervention
could not work, and would tend to lead inevitably to socialism.
Mises elaborated these insights in his Critique of Interventionism
(1929), and set forth his political philosophy of laissez-faire
liberalism in his Liberalism (1927).
In adition to setting himself against all the political trends of
the twentieth century, Mises combated with equal fervor and
eloquence what he considered the disastrous dominant philosophical
and methodological trends, in economics and other disciplines. These
included positivism, relativism, historicism, polylogism” the idea
that each race and gender has its own “logic” and therefore cannot
communicate with other groups), and all forms of irrationalism and
denial of objective truth. Mises also developed what he considered
to be the proper methodology of economic theory--logical deduction
from evident axioms, which he labeled “praxeology”, and he leveled
trenchant critiques of the growing tendency in economics and other
disciplines to replace praxeology and historical understanding by
unrealistic mathematical models and statistical manipulations.
Emigrating to the United States in 1940, Mises’s first two books in
English were important and influential. His Omnipotent Government
(1944) was the first book to challenge the then-standard Marxian
view that fascism and Nazism were imposed upon their nations by big
business and the “capitalist class.” His Bureaucracy (1944) was a
still unsurpassed analysis of why government operation must
necessarily be “bureaucratic” and suffer from all the ills of bureaucracy.
Mises’s most monumental achievement was his Human Action (1949), the
first comprehensive treatise on economic theory written since the
first World War. Here Mises took up the challenge of his own
methodology and research program and elaborated an integrated and
massive structure of economic theory on his own deductive,
“praxeological” principles. Published in an era when economists and
governments generally were totally dedicated to statism and
Keynesian inflation, Human Action was unread by the economics
profession. Finally, in 1957 Mises published his last major work,
Theory and History, which, in addition to refutations of Marxism and
historicism, set forth the basic differences and functions of theory
and of history in economics as well as all the various disciplines of human action.
In the United States as in his native Austria, Mises could not find
a paid post in academia. New York University, where he taught from
until 1945 until his retirement at the age of 88 in 1969, would only
designate him as Visiting Professor, and his salary had to be paid
by the conservative-libertarian William Volker Fund until 1962, and
after that by a consortium of free-market foundations and
businessmen. Despite the unfavorable climate, Mises inspired a
growing group of students and admirers, cheerfully encouraged their
scholarship, and himself continued his remarkable productivity.
Mises was also sustained by and worked together with free-market
and libertarian admirers. From its origin in 1946 until his death,
Mises was a part-time staff member of the Foundation for Economic
Education at Irvington-on-Hudson, New York; and he was in the 1950s
an economic advisor to the National Association of Manufacturers
(NAM) working with their laissez-faire wing which finally lost out
to the tide of “enlightened” statism.
As a free trader and a classical liberal in the tradition of Cobden,
Bright, and Spencer, Mises was a libertarian who championed reason
and individual liberty in personal as well as economic matters. As
a rationalist and an opponent of statism in all its forms, Mises
would never call himself a “conservative,” but rather a liberal in
the nineteenth-century sense.
Indeed, Mises was politically a laissez-faire radical, who denounced
tariffs, immigration restrictions, or governmental attempts to
enforce morality. On the other hand, Mises was a staunch cultural
and sociological conservative, who attacked egalitarianism, strongly
denounced political feminism as a facet of socialism. In contrast to
many conservative critics of capitalism, Mises held that personal
morality and the nuclear family were both essential to, and fostered
by, a system of free-market capitalism.
Mises’s influence was remarkable, considering the unpopularity of
his epistemological and political views. His students of the 1920s,
even those who later became Keynesians, were permanently stamped by
a visible Misesian influence. These students included, in addition
to Hayek and Robbins, Fritz Machlup, Gottfried von Haberler, Oskar
Morgenstern, Alfred Schutz, Hugh Gaitskell, Howard S. Ellis, John
Van Sickle, and Erich Voegelin.
Mises’s influence also played a highly important, if unheralded role
in swinging post-World War II Europe from a socialist and
inflationist to a roughly free-market and hard-money policy.
Germany’s great Ludwig Erhard, almost single-handedly responsible
for West Germany’s “economic miracle” based on free markets and hard
money, was himself an economist and a friend and disciple of Alfred
Muller-Armack and Wilhelm Ropke, themselves heavily influenced by
Misesian ideas.
In France, General DeGaulle’s major economic and monetary adviser,
who helped swing France away from socialism, was Jacques Rueff, an
old-friend and admirer of Mises. And part of post-World War II
Italy’s shift away from socialism was due to its President Luigi
Einaudi, a distinguished economist and long-time friend and
free-market colleague of Mises. In the United States, Mises was
scarcely as influential. Under less promising academic conditions,
his students and admirers included Henry Hazlitt, Lawrence Fertig,
Percy Greaves, Jr., Bettina Bien Graeves, Hans F. Sennholz, William
H. Peterson, Louis M. Spadaro, Israel M. Kirzner, Ralph Raico,
George Reisman, and Murray N. Rothbard. But Mises was able to build
a remarkably strong and loyal following among businessmen and other
non-academics; his massive and complex Human Action has sold
extraordinarily well ever since the year of its original publication.
Since Mises’s death in New York City on October 10, 1973 at the age
of 92, Misesian doctrine and influence has experienced a
renaissance. The following year saw not only Hayek’s Nobel Prize
for Misesian cycle theory, but also the first of many Austrian
School conferences in the United States. Books by Mises have been
reprinted and collections of his articles translated and published.
Courses and programs in Austrian Economics have been taught and
established throughout the country.
Taking the lead in this revival of Mises and in the study and
expansion of Misesian doctrine has been the Ludwig von Mises
Institute, founded by Llewellyn Rockwell, Jr. in 1982 and
headquartered in Auburn, Alabama. The Mises Institute publishes
scholarly journals and books, and offers courses in elementary,
intermediate and advanced Austrian economics, which attract
increasing numbers of students and professors. Undoubtedly, the
collapse of socialism and the increased attractiveness of the free
market have greatly contributed to this upsurge of popularity.
--------
Murray N. Rothbard (1926-1995) was dean of the Austrian School after
Mises's death.
Chronology
(Based on Bettina B. Greaves's Annotated Bibliography of Ludwig von Mises)
1881. Born September 29 to Arthur Edler and Adele (Landau) von
Mises, at Lemberg, in the Austro-Hungarian Empire. After World War
1, Lemberg became "Lwow," a part of Poland; after World War II,
"Lvov," a part of Ukraine in the U.S.S.R.; then in December 1991,
"Lviv," in the newly independent republic of Ukraine. Ludwig's
father, educated at Zürich Polytechnic, was a construction engineer
employed in the Austrian Railroad Ministry. Ludwig was the oldest of
three boys; one died as a child; Richard became well known as a mathematician.
Attended a private elementary school, then the public Akademishe
Gymnasium in Vienna (1892-1900).
1900. First visit to Switzerland.
1900-1902. Attended Universität Wien (University of Vienna).
1902 . "Die Entwicklung des gutsherrlich-bäuerlichen Verhältnisses
in Galizien (1772-1848) [The Development of the Relationship between
Peasant and the Lord of the Manor in Galicia, 1772-1848]. A
monograph about the decline of serfdom in Mises' native Galicia.
1903. Mises's father died.
1906. February 20: Awarded Dr. Jur. degree, Doctor of both Canon and
Roman Laws, from the Universität Wien [University of Vienna). When
Mises attended the University, it had no separate economics
department; the only path to studying economics in those days was
through law.
1904(?) -1914. Attended seminar of Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk at the
Universität Wien.
1910. Completed compulsory military service, consisting of three
4-week periods of duty, one each year for three years.
1906-1912. Taught economics to seniors of the Wiener Handelsakademie
für Mädchen [Viennese Commercial Academy for Girls].
1907-1908. Began working at the Kammer für Handel, Gewerbe und
Industrie [Austrian Chamber of Commerce], "Handelskammer" for short,
an official advisory agency of the Austrian government.
1912.Theorie des Geldes und der Umlaufsmittel [Theory of Money and
Credit], Mises' first important theoretical work.
1913. Appointed Privatdozent (unsalaried lecturer) at the University
of Vienna.
1914-1918. Called back to active duty when World War I started. He
left Vienna in the summer of 1914 to go to war, on the same day and
on the same train on which he had planned to leave to teach a
seminar in Silesia. He served as a captain with the artillery in the
Austro-Hungarian cavalry, primarily on the Eastern front in the
Carpathian Mountains, Russian Ukraine, and Crimea. During the latter
part of the war, he worked on economic problems with the Army's
General Staff in Vienna.
1918-1919.Taught a class of officers seeking to return to civilian
life at the Wiener Exportakademie [Viennese Export Academy], later
the Hochschule für Welthandel [Institute for World Trade].
1918-1920. Director, League of Nation's Austrian Abrechnungs Amt
[Reparations Commission].
1919-1934. Returned to the University of Vienna as a Privatdozent
(unsalaried lecturer); invested May 18, 1918, with the title of
"Professor Extraordinary."
After World War 1, Mises helped to revive the Nationalökonomische
Gesellschaft [Economic Society], publisher of the quarterly,
Zeitschriftfur Nationalökonomie.
1918-1938. Resumed position with the Handelskammer, the Austrian
Chamber of Commerce.
1919. Nation, Staat und Wirtschaft: Beiträge zur Politik and
Geschichte der Zeit [Nation, State, and Economy: Contributions to
the Politics and History of Our Time].
1920. Die Wirtschaftsrechnung im sozialistischen Gemeinwesen"
[Economic Calculation in the Socialist Commonwealth]. Paper
presented to the Nationalökonomische Gesellschaft, later published
in the Archiv für Sozialwissenschaft und Sozialpolitik (1920).
1919-1933. Active member, Verein fiir Sozialpolitik [Association for
Social Policy].
1920-1934. Conducted a private seminar [Privatseminar] in his office
on alternate Friday evenings. Participants: University Ph.Ds and
guests, by invitation only.
1922. Die Gemeinwirtshaft: Untersitchungen über den Sozialismus
[Socialism: An Economic and Sociological Analysis].
1923. Die geldtheoretische Seite des Stabilisierungsproblems
[Stabilization of the Monetary Unit, from the Viewpoint of Theory].
1924. The Theory of Money and Credit, 2nd German edition.
1926. Lecture tour of U.S. universities, under sponsorship of Laura
Spelman (Rockefeller) Foundation.
1927-1938. January 1, 1927: The Oesterreichisches Institut für
Konjunkturforschung [Austrian Institute for Business Cycle Research,
established by Mises, began operations. Mises became its Acting
(Executive) Vice President; F. A. Hayek served as manager until
1931; when Hayek migrated to London, Oskar Morgenstern took over.
1927. Liberalismus [Liberalism]. First English translation published
1962 as The Free and Prosperous Commonwealth.
1928. Geldwertstabilisierung and Konjunkturpolitik [Monetary
Stabilization and Cyclical Policy]. 1929. Kritik des
Interventionismus: Untersuchungen zur Wirtschaftspolitik und
Wirtschaftsideologie der Gegenwart [Critique of Interventionism:
Inquiries into Present Day Economic Policy and Ideology].
1931. Visited the United States for the Congress of the
International Chamber of Commerce.
Die Ursachen der Wirtschaftskrise: Ein Vortrag[The Causes of the
Economic Crisis: A Lecture.
1932. Socialism, 2nd German edition.
1933. Grundprobleme der Nationalökonomie [Epistemological Problems
of Economics].
1934. English translation of Theorie des Geldes und der
Umlaufsmittel [The Theory of Money and Credit].
1934-1940. Professor of International Economic Relations, Institut
Universitaire des Hautes Études Internationales (Graduate Institute
of International Studies], Geneva, Switzerland. Though he bad left
Vienna to accept this position in Switzerland, Mises retained his
association with the Austrian Chamber of Commerce on a part-time
basis until the Anschluss, Hitler's annexation of Austria in March 1938.
1936English translation of Die Gemeinwirtschaft [Socialism].
1937. Mises's mother died in Vienna.
1938. July 6: Married Margit (née Herzfeld) Sereny in Geneva.
1940. Nationalökonomie: Theorie des Handelns und Wirtschaftens
[Economics: Theory of Action and Exchange].
Interventionism: An Economic Analysis (not published until 1998).
Migrated to the United States, arriving in New York on August 2.
1940-1944. Wrote reminiscences of his life in Vienna, translated and
published posthumously as Notes and Recollections (1978).
Rockefeller Foundation and National Bureau of Economic Research
grants enabled Mises to write two books, Omnipotent Government: The
Rise of the Total State and Total War and Bureaucracy, both
published in 1944.
1942. January and February: 2-month appointment in Mexico as
Visiting Professor at the Universidad Nacional Autónoma de Mexico,
Escuela Nacional de Economia [National University of Mexico, School of Economics].
1945-1969. Visiting Professor, New York University, Graduate School
of Business Administration. Gave two courses, Monday evening lecture
(February 1945-Spring 1964), Thursday evening seminar (Fall 1948-Spring 1969).
1946. Member, Economic Principles Commission, National Association
of Manufacturers. As such, consulted in the preparation of The
American Individual Enterprise System, 2 vols. (McGraw Hill, 1946),
the product of "the consensus of judgment among the Comission members."
Acquired U. S. citizenship.
July 26 to September 4: Visiting Professor in Mexico, lecturing for
the Escuela de Economía [School of Economics of the Associación
Mexicana de Cultura [Mexican Cultural Association].
1946-1973. Adviser, Foundation for Economic Education, Inc.
(Irvington-on-Hudson, N.Y.).
1947 Planned Chaos.
Instrumental in the founding, with F. A. Hayek, of the Mont Pè1erin
Society, an international society of businessmen, economists, and
other intellectuals.
1949. July 30 to August 28: lectured in Mexico for the Escuela de
Economia [School of Economics] of the Associacion Mexicana de
Cultura [Mexican Cultural Association].
Human Action: A Treatise On Economic
1950. March 31 to April 16: Lecture tour of Peru, at the invitation
of the Banco Central de Reserve (Central Reserve Bank), Pedro
Beltrán, Chairman.
1951. Socialism, New U. S. edition of English translation, enlarged
with Planned Chaos (1947) as its epilogue.
1952. Planning for Freedom: And 0ther Essays and Addresses. Later
enlarged editions published 1962, 1974, and 1980.
1953The Theory of Money and Credit. New U. S. edition of English
translation, enlarged with a new essay on "Monetary Reconstruction."
Richard von Mises, Ludwig's brother, the mathematician, dies.
1954-1955. January 1954 to April 1955: Adviser to National
Association of Manufacturers.
1956. February 20: Mises's Doctorate renewed and commemorated by the
Universität Wien [University of Vienna] on the 50th anniversary of
the date on which it was awarded.
Festschrift published on the occasion of the Fiftieth Anniversary of
Mises's Doctorate, February 20, 1956, On Freedom and Free
Enterprise: Essays in Honor of Ludwig von Mises(Mary Sennholz, editor).
The Anti-Capitalistic Mentality
1957. Distinguished Service Award of the Fellowship of Former
Overseas Rotarians.
June 8: Granted Honorary Degree, Doctor of laws, Grove City College,
Grove City, Pennsylvania.
Theory and History
1958. September 19 to September 28: Visited Mexico under sponsorship
of the Instituto de Investigaciones Sociales y Económicas [Institute
for Social and Economic Investigations] to participate in a seminar
with several other members of the Mont Pelerin Society.
1959. June 2 to June 15: Invited to Buenos Aires, Argentina, by the
Centro de Difusión de la Economia Libre [Center for the Promotion of
the Free Economy], later the Centro de Estudios sobre la Libertad
[Center for the Study of Freedom]. Delivered six lectures, published
posthumously as Economic Policy: Thoughts for Today and
Tomorrow(1979).
1960. English translation of Grundprobleme der Nationalökonomie
[Epistemological Problems of Economics].
1962. The Ultimate Foundation of Economic Science.
English translation of LiberalismusLiberalism] under the title of
The Free and Prosperous Commonwealth.
October 20: Awarded Österreichisches Ehrenzeichen für Wissenschaft
und Kunst [Austrian medal of honor for science and the arts] in
recognition of his "distinguished activities as a scholar and
teacher and for his internationally recognized work in the fields of
political science and economics."
1963. June 5: Awarded Honorary Degree, Doctorate of Laws, by New
York University, "for his exposition of the philosophy of the free
market, and his advocacy of a free society."
Human Action, 2nd ed., revised.
1964. July 28: Granted Honorary Degree, Doctor Rerum Politicarum
[Doctor of Political Science] by the University of Freiburg,
Breisgau, Germany.
1966 Human Action, 3rd edition.
1965-1971. Visiting Professor, Plano University, Plano, Texas.
1969. September: Cited by the American Economic Association as
"Distinguished Fellow" of the year.
1971. September 29: Festschrift published in honor of Mises's 90th
birthday: Toward Liberty: Essays in Honor of Ludwig von Mises on the
Occasion of his 90th Birthday (2 volumes).
1973. October 10: Mises dies at St. Vincent's Hospital in New York City.
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